Table of Contents
I. The Parts of Speech. 1A. What is a Verb?. 1B. What is a Noun?. 21. Noun Gender. 22. Noun Plurals. 23. Possessive Nouns. 34. Using Possessive Nouns. 45. Types Of Nouns. 46. Proper Nouns. 47. Common Nouns. 58. Concrete Nouns. 59. Abstract Nouns. 510. Countable Nouns. 511. Non-Countable Nouns. 612. Collective Nouns. 6C. What is a Pronoun?. 71. Personal Pronouns. 72. Subjective Personal Pronouns. 73. Objective Personal Pronouns. 74. Possessive Personal Pronouns. 85. Demonstrative Pronouns. 86. Interrogative Pronouns. 97. Relative Pronouns. 98. Indefinite Pronouns. 109. Reflexive Pronouns. 1110. Intensive Pronouns. 11D. What Is An Adjective?. 111. Possessive Adjectives. 122. Demonstrative Adjectives. 123. Interrogative Adjectives. 134. Indefinite Adjectives. 13E. What is an Adverb?. 131. Conjunctive Adverbs. 14F. What is a Preposition?. 14G. What is a Conjunction?. 151. Co-ordinating Conjunctions. 152. Subordinating Conjunctions. 163. Correlative Conjunctions. 16*Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs. 17H. What is an Interjection?. 17II. The Parts of the Sentence. 17A. Subject and Predicate. 171. Unusual Sentences. 172. Simple Subject and Simple Predicate. 18B. Objects and Complements. 181. Objects. 182. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 183. Subject Complements. 194. Object Complements. 19· (by David Megginson). 19III. Punctuation. 20A. The Comma. 20B. Comma Usage. 20C. Superfluous Commas. 21D. The Semicolon. 21E. The Colon. 221. When to Use a Colon. 222. When Not to Use a Colon. 22*[RIGHT] We travelled to London, Wales and Scotland.. 22F. End Punctuation. 22G. Quotation Marks. 231. Quotations Marks with Other Punctuation. 23H. The Apostrophe. 24I. The Dash. 24IV. Pronoun Reference. 25A. A pronoun should have only one possible antecedent. 25B. A pronoun should not refer to an implied idea. 25C. A pronoun should not refer to adjectives or possessive nouns. 25D. A pronoun should not refer to a title.. 26E. Use "it," "they," and "you" carefully.. 26F. Use "it" consistently within a sentence.. 26G. Use "who," "which," and "that" carefully.. 27H. Tricky Points of Pronoun Usage. 271. Pronouns in Apposition. 272. "Us" and "we" before a Noun. 273. Using 'than' or 'as' in a Comparison. 28V. Using Verbs. 28A. Compound Verbs. 28B. Auxiliary Verbs. 29C. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 30D. Linking Verbs. 31E. Verbals. 321. The Participle. 332. The Gerund. 333. Using Verbals. 334. Forming and Using Verb Tenses. 345. Irregular Verbs. 356. Frequently-Confused Verbs. 36*In each of these sentence, the verb "set" is used to describe the placing of an object in a specific place.. 37F. Using Verb Tenses. 371. Verb Tense: Time. 372. Verb Tense: Aspect. 383. The Simple Present Tense. 384. The Present Progressive. 395. The Present Perfect Tense. 406. The Present Perfect Progressive Tense. 407. The Simple Past Tense. 418. The Past Progressive Tense. 419. The Past Perfect Tense. 4110. The Past Perfect Progressive Tense. 4211. The Simple Future Tense. 4212. The Future Progressive Tense. 4313. The Future Perfect Tense. 4314. The Future Perfect Progressive Tense. 43I. The Parts of SpeechTraditional grammar classifies words based on eight
parts of speech: the
verb, the
noun, the
pronoun, the
adjective, the
adverb, the
preposition, the
conjunction, and the
interjection.
Each
part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one
sentence and a verb or adjective in the next. The next few examples show how a word's part of speech can change from one sentence to the next, and following them is a series of sections on the individual parts of speech, followed by an exercise.
Books are made of ink, paper, and glue.
In this sentence, "books" is a noun, the
subject of the sentence.
Deborah waits patiently while Bridget books the tickets.
Here "books" is a verb, and its subject is "Bridget."
We walk down the street.
In this sentence, "walk" is a verb, and its subject is the pronoun "we".
The mail carrier stood on the walk.
In this example, "walk" is a noun, which is part of a
prepositional phrase describing where the mail carrier stood.
The town decided to build a new jail.
Here "jail" is a noun, which is the
object of the
infinitive phrase "to build."
The sheriff told us that if we did not leave town immediately he would jail us.
Here "jail" is part of the
compound verb "would jail."
They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.
In this sentence, "cries" is a noun acting as the
direct object of the verb "heard."
The baby cries all night long and all day long.
But here "cries" is a verb that describes the actions of the subject of the sentence, the baby.
The next few sections explain each of the parts of speech in detail. When you have finished, you might want to test yourself by trying the exercise.
A. What is a Verb?The verb is perhaps the most important part of the
sentence. A
verb or
compound verb asserts something about the
subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the
predicate of a sentence.
In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted:
Dracula bites his victims on the neck.
The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.
In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.
Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.
My first teacher was Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr. Weatherbee more vividly.
In this sentence, the verb "was" (the
simple past tense of "is") identifies a particular person and the verb "remembered" describes a mental action.
Karl Creelman bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and his bicycle were destroyed.
In this sentence, the compound verb "were destroyed" describes an action which took place in the past.
B. What is a Noun?A
noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following
sentences are all nouns:
Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a
subject, a
direct object, an
indirect object, a
subject complement, an
object complement, an
appositive, an
adjective or an
adverb.
1. Noun GenderMany common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their
gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress" -- but this use of
gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.
David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.
The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"
2. Noun PluralsMost nouns change their form to indicate
number by adding "-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:
When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.
Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.
As they walked through the silent house. they were startled by an unexpected echo.
I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that returned.
He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.
Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.
There are other nouns which form the
plural by changing the last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies," as in the following pairs of sentences:
The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.
There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.
Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.
The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities.
The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?"
The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.
Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you probably know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.
3. Possessive Nouns
In the
possessive case, a noun or
pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an
apostrophe and the letter "s."
You can form the possessive case of a
singular noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:
The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following examples:
The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.
The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.
Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the following examples:
The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.
Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not always final.
The men's hockey team will be play as soon as the women's team is finished.
The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by adding an apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.
Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night debates.
4. Using Possessive NounsWhen you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the
article "the," they make up the
noun phrase that is the sentence's subject.
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a
gerund. The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking", "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the
verb "crushed."
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the
object of the
infinitive phrase "to locate."
5. Types Of NounsThere are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalise others, such as "badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.
If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the following sections.
6. Proper NounsYou always write a
proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun
In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:
The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.
Many people dread Monday mornings.
Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.
7. Common NounsA
common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:
According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.
Many child-care workers are underpaid.
Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples:
The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent.
The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.
Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.
The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the history of the Holocaust.
8. Concrete NounsA
concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:
The judge handed the files to the clerk.
Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.
As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.
The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.
9. Abstract NounsAn
abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:
Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.
10. Countable NounsA
countable noun (or
count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun can be made plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:
We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.
Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.
11. Non-Countable NounsA
non-countable noun (or
mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:
Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.
Oxygen is essential to human life.
Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."
We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we moved.
You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.
The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."
The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."
12. Collective NounsA
collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:
The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
The collective noun "geese" takes the singular verb "spends."
The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.
In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular
compound verb "is dining."
The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.
Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."
The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.
In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb "was startled".
C. What is a Pronoun?A
pronoun can replace a
noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your
sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.
1. Personal PronounsA
personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate
person,
number,
gender, and
case.
2. Subjective Personal PronounsA
subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the
subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:
I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
He stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.
When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.
After many years, they returned to their homeland.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
It is on the counter.
Are you the delegates from Malagawatch?
3. Objective Personal PronounsAn
objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an
object of a
verb,
compound verb,
preposition, or
infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal pronoun:
Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.
The objective personal pronoun "her" is the
direct object of the verb "forced" and the objective personal pronoun "him" is the object of the preposition "with."
After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can.
The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw".
The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, "Our leader will address you in five minutes."
In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb "address."
Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest café in the market.
Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the compound verb "will meet."
Give the list to me.
Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition "to".
I'm not sure that my contact will talk to you.
Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the object of the preposition "to".
Christopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.
Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to see."
4. Possessive Personal PronounsA
possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The
possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to
possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun:
The smallest gift is mine.
Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a
subject complement.
This is yours.
Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.
His is on the kitchen counter.
In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the sentence.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the sentence.
Ours is the green one on the corner.
Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the sentence.
5. Demonstrative PronounsA
demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are used to refer to
singular nouns or
noun phrases and "these" and "those" are used to refer to
plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to
demonstrative adjectives, though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:
This must not continue.
Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue."
This is puny; that is the tree I want.
In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the speaker.
Three customers wanted these.
Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted".
6. Interrogative PronounsAn
interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the
suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an
interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.
"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a
verbal.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:
Which wants to see the dentist first?
"Which" is the subject of the sentence.
Who wrote the novel Rockbound?
Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence.
Whom do you think we should invite?
In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite."
To whom do you wish to speak?
Here the interrogative pronoun "whom " is the object of the preposition "to."
Who will meet the delegates at the train station?
In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the compound verb "will meet".
To whom did you give the paper?
In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to."
What did she say?
Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say."
7. Relative PronounsYou can use a
relative pronoun is used to link one
phrase or
clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.
You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun.
You may invite whomever you like to the party.
The relative pronoun "whomever" is the direct object of the compound verb "may invite".
The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected.
In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and introduces the
subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote". This subordinate clause acts as an
adjective modifying "candidate."
In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.
In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and introduces the subordinate clause "whom she believes to be the most efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers."
Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.
Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke".
The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet.
In this example "which" acts as the subject of the compound verb "was left" and introduces the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor." The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate."
I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.
Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the subordinate clause "whichever manuscript arrives first." The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."
8. Indefinite PronounsAn
indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as
indefinite adjectives.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:
Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.
Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited".
The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor.
In this example ,"everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was thrown."
We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale.
In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of theverb "donated."
Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none.
Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the direct object of "found."
Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.
In this example, "everyone" is the
indirect object of the verb "give" -- the direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."
Give a registration package to each.
Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."
9. Reflexive PronounsYou can use a
reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:
Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.
The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more important work.
After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building.
Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself.
Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it ourselves.
10. Intensive PronounsAn
intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasise its
antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:
I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.
The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.
They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time.
D. What Is An Adjective?An
adjective modifies a
noun or a
pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an
adverb, or by a
phrase or
clause functioning as an adverb. In the
sentenceMy husband knits intricately patterned mittens.
for example, the adverb ``intricately'' modifies the adjective ``patterned.''
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many
participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are
past participles.
Grammarians also consider
articles (``the,'' ``a,'' ``an'') to be adjectives.
1. Possessive AdjectivesA
possessive adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,'' ``its,'' ``our,'' ``their'') is similar or identical to a
possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a
noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``my'' modifies ``assignment'' and the noun phrase ``my assignment'' functions as an
object. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.
What is your phone number.
Here the possessive adjective ``your'' is used to modify the noun phrase ``phone number''; the entire noun phrase ``your phone number'' is a
subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``yours'' is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective ``his'' modifies the noun phrase ``favourite type of bread'' and the entire noun phrase ``his favourite type of bread'' is the
direct object of the
verb ``sold.''
After many years, she returned to her homeland.
Here the possessive adjective ``her'' modifies the noun ``homeland'' and the noun phrase ``her homeland'' is the object of the
preposition ``to.'' Note also that the form ``hers'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``our'' modifies ``way'' and the noun phrase ``our way'' is the direct object of the
compound verb ``have lost''. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``ours'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective ``their'' modifies ``parents'' and the noun phrase ``their parents'' is the object of the preposition ``by.'' Note that the possessive pronoun form ``theirs'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``its'' modifies ``ball'' and the noun phrase ``its ball'' is the object of the verb ``chased.'' Note that ``its'' is the possessive adjective and ``it's'' is a
contraction for ``it is.''
2. Demonstrative AdjectivesThe
demonstrative adjectives ``this,'' ``these,'' ``that,'' ``those,'' and ``what'' are identical to the
demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective ``that'' modifies the noun ``cord'' and the noun phrase ``that cord'' is the object of the preposition ``over.''
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the noun phrase ``this apartment'' is the
subject of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the
subordinate clause, ``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun phrase ``those plates'' is the object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the
independent clause, ``these'' is the direct object of the verb ``bought.''
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an
interrogative pronoun.
3. Interrogative AdjectivesAn
interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, ``which'' modifies ``plants'' and the noun phrase ``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb ``should be watered'':
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book'' and the noun phrase ``what book'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``are reading.''
4. Indefinite AdjectivesAn
indefinite adjective is similar to an
indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies the noun ``people'' and the noun phrase ``many people'' is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the noun phrase ``any mail'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``will send.''
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun ``goldfish'' and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb ``found'':
The title of Kelly's favourite game is ``All dogs go to heaven.''
Here the indefinite pronoun ``all'' modifies ``dogs'' and the full title is a subject complement.
E. What is an Adverb?An
adverb can modify a
verb, an
adjective, another adverb, a
phrase, or a
clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly"
suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the
sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."
Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.
In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.
1. Conjunctive AdverbsYou can use a
conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to join two
independent clauses without the aid of a
semicolon.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are conjunctive adverbs:
The government has cut university budgets; consequently, class sizes have been increased.
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he decided to make something else.
The report recommended several changes to the ways the corporation accounted for donations; furthermore, it suggested that a new auditor be appointed immediately.
The crowd waited patiently for three hours; finally, the doors to the stadium were opened.
Batman and Robin fruitlessly searched the building; indeed, the Joker had escaped through a secret door in the basement.
F. What is a Preposition?A
preposition links
nouns,
pronouns and
phrases to other words in a
sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the
object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time.
A
prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated
adjectives or
adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:
The children climbed the mountain without fear.
In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed.
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.
Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the
noun phrase "the land." The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing.
The spider crawled slowly along the banister.
The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and the prepositional phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled.
The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes.
Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase "under the porch," which acts as an adverb modifying the
compound verb "is hiding."
The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was somewhere in his office.
Similarly in this sentence, the preposition "in" introduces a prepositional phrase "in his office," which acts as an adverb describing the location of the missing papers.
G. What is a Conjunction?You can use a
conjunction to link words,
phrases, and
clauses, as in the following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
1. Co-ordinating ConjunctionsYou use a
co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and
independent clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as
prepositions.
In the following
sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co-ordinating conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two
nouns.
This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish.
Here the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two
participle phrases ("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as
adverbs describing the
verb "spends."
2. Subordinating ConjunctionsA
subordinating conjunction introduces a
dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork arrives on time."
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed."
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because."
3. Correlative ConjunctionsCorrelative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an
adjective or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:
Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the two
noun phrases that act as the
compound subject of the sentence: "my grandfather" and "my father".
Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello salad" and "a potato scallop."
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two
infinitive phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as
direct objects.
*Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs.H. What is an Interjection?An
interjection is a word added to a
sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.
You usually follow an interjection with an
exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!
II. The Parts of the SentenceThe
parts of the sentence are a set of terms for describing how people construct
sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct correspondence between the parts of the sentence and the
parts of speech -- the
subject of a sentence, for example, could be a
noun, a
pronoun, or even an entire
phrase or
clause. Like the parts of speech, however, the parts of the sentence form part of the basic vocabulary of grammar, and it is important that you take some time to learn and understand them.
A. Subject and PredicateEvery complete
sentence contains two parts: a
subject and a
predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.
Judy {runs}.
Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.
To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the
verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.
The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn."
1. Unusual SentencesImperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed.
Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")
Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will soon follow.
There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning.
If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three stray kittens," the correct subject.
2. Simple Subject and Simple PredicateEvery subject is built around one
noun or
pronoun (or more) that, when stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the
simple subject. Consider the following example:
A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.
The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject.
Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a
simple predicate, which is always the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb of the sentence.
A sentence may have a
compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:
Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls.
Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.
The second sentence above features a
compound predicate, a predicate that includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case, "walked" and "admired").
B. Objects and Complements1. ObjectsA
verb may be followed by an
object that completes the verb's meaning. Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To determine if a verb has a
direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object:
Direct Object
The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche.
Direct Object
Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.
The second
sentence above also contains an
indirect object. An indirect object (which, like a direct object, is always a
noun or
pronoun) is, in a sense, the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect object, isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it. The answer is the indirect object.
Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following sentences:
The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.
After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.
2. Transitive and Intransitive VerbsVerbs that take objects are known as
transitive verbs. Verbs not followed by objects are called
intransitive verbs.
Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on the context:
Direct Object
I hope the Senators win the next game.
No Direct Object
Did we win?
3. Subject ComplementsIn addition to the
transitive verb and the
intransitive verb, there is a third kind of verb called a
linking verb. The word (or
phrase) which follows a linking verb is called not an object, but a
subject complement.
The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become," "seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound," among others. Note that some of these are sometimes linking verbs, sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on how you use them:
Linking verb with subject complement
He was a radiologist before he became a full-time yoga instructor.
Linking verb with subject complement
Your homemade chili smells delicious.
Transitive verb with direct object
I can't smell anything with this terrible cold.
Intransitive verb with no object
The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly of fish.
Note that a subject complement can be either a noun ("radiologist", "instructor") or an
adjective ("delicious").
4. Object Complements· (by David Megginson)An
object complement is similar to a subject complement, except that (obviously) it modifies an object rather than a
subject. Consider this example of a subject complement:
The driver seems tired.
In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun "driver," which is the subject of the sentence.
Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following example:
I consider the driver tired.
In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but the adjective "tired" is still acting as its complement.
In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or changing something can cause their direct objects to take an object complement:
Paint it black.
The judge ruled her out of order.
I saw the Prime Minister sleeping.
In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a sentence of its own using a subject complement: "it is black," "she is out of order," "the Prime Minister is sleeping."
III. PunctuationThe following sections will help you understand and use different types of
punctuation more effectively in your writing. This chapter begins with the
comma, the punctuation mark which usually causes writers the most trouble, before turning to other types of punctuation.
A. The CommaComma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style: some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use them sparingly. Most modern North American style guides now recommend using fewer commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of using a comma or not, you may find it wise to refrain.
For instance, the use of a comma before the "and" in a series is usually optional, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no danger of misreading:
We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before leaving for Iceland. (comma unnecessary before "and")
We ate apples, plums, and strawberry and kiwi compote. (comma needed before "and" for clarity)
B. Comma Usage1. Use a comma before a
co-ordinating conjunction that joins
independent clauses (unless the independent clauses are very short):
I wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but my van still smelled like trout for the next week. (commas with two independent clauses)
She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary with short
clauses)
2. Use a comma after an introductory
adverb clause and, often, after an introductory
phrase (unless the phrase is very short):
After the hospital had completed its fund-raising campaign, an anonymous donor contributed an additional $10,000. (after introductory adverb clause)
From the east wall to the west, her cottage measures twenty feet. (after introductory
prepositional phrase)
In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no comma with short, closely related phrase)
3. Use a comma to separate items in a series:
Playing in a band can be exciting, but many people do not realize the hardships involved: constant rehearsals, playing until 2 a.m., handling drunken audience members, and transporting heavy equipment to and from gigs. (the comma preceding "and" is optional unless needed to prevent misreading)
4. Use commas to set off
non-restrictive elements and other parenthetical elements. A
non-restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that does not restrict or limit the meaning of the word it is modifying. It is, in a sense, interrupting material that adds extra information to a
sentence. Even though removing the non-restrictive element would result in some loss of meaning, the sentence would still make sense without it. You should usually set off non-restrictive elements with commas:
The people of Haiti, who for decades have lived with grinding poverty and mind-numbing violence, are unfamiliar with the workings of a true democracy.
A
restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of what it modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence. You should not set off
restrictive elements with commas:
Those residents of Ottawa who do not hold secure, well-paying jobs must resent the common portrayal of the city as a land of opportunity.
Note that you can use two other punctuation marks to set off non-restrictive elements or other
parenthetical information:
parentheses and
dashes. Enclosing parenthetical information in parentheses reduces the importance of that information:
Mr. Grundy's driving record (with one small exception) was exemplary.
5. Placing parenthetical information between dashes has the opposite effect: it emphasises the material:
Mr. Grundy's driving record -- with one exception -- was exemplary.
Nevertheless, you should usually set off parenthetical information with commas.
C. Superfluous CommasEqually important in understanding how to use commas effectively is knowing when not to use them. While this decision is sometimes a matter of personal taste, there are certain instances when you should definitely avoid a comma.
· Do not use a comma to separate the
subject from its
predicate:
[WRONG] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15, will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.
[RIGHT] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.
· Do not use a comma to separate a
verb from its
object or its
subject complement, or a
preposition from its object:
[WRONG] I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of my dog Benji.
She travelled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.
[RIGHT] I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of my dog Benji.
[RIGHT] She travelled around the world with a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.
· Do not misuse a comma after a co-ordinating conjunction:
[WRONG] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.
[RIGHT] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.
· Do not use commas to set off words and short phrases (especially introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly so:
[WRONG] After dinner, we will play badminton.
[RIGHT] After dinner we will play badminton.
· Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements:
[WRONG] The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his right.
[RIGHT] The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.
· Do not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series:
[WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[WRONG] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps, if you want to improve in the martial arts.
[RIGHT] The treasure chest contained three wigs, some costume jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.
[RIGHT] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps if you want to improve in the martial arts.
D. The SemicolonYou will usually use the
semicolon to link
independent clauses not joined by a
co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.
Abdominal exercises help prevent back pain; proper posture is also important.
The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been adopted so far.
Do not use a semicolon to link a
dependent clause or a
phrase to an independent clause.
[WRONG] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical fitness takes a good deal of time; the effort pays off in the long run.
[RIGHT] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical fitness takes a good deal of time, the effort pays off in the long run.
Generally, you should not place a semicolon before a co-ordinating conjunction that links two independent clauses. The only exception to this guideline is if the two independent clauses are very long and already contain a number of
commas.
[WRONG] The economy has been sluggish for four years now; but some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
[RIGHT] The economy has been sluggish for four years now, but some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
It may be useful to remember that, for the most part, you should use a semicolon only where you could also use a
period.
There is one exception to this guideline. When punctuating a list or series of elements in which one or more of the elements contains an internal comma, you should use semicolons instead of commas to separate the elements from one another:
Henry's mother believes three things: that every situation, no matter how grim, will be happily resolved; that no one knows more about human nature than she; and that Henry, who is thirty-five years old, will never be able to do his own laundry.
E. The ColonWriters often confuse the colon with the
semicolon, but their uses are entirely different.
1. When to Use a ColonThe
colon focuses the reader's attention on what is to follow, and as a result, you should use it to introduce a list, a summation, or an idea that somehow completes the introductory idea. You may use the colon in this way, however, only after an
independent clause:
He visited three cities during his stay in the Maritimes: Halifax, Saint John and Moncton.
Their lobbying efforts were ultimately useless: the bill was soundly defeated.
My mother gave me one good piece of advice: to avoid wasting time and energy worrying about things I cannot change.
2. When Not to Use a ColonYou should not place a colon between a
verb and its
object or
subject complement, or between a
preposition and its object:
[WRONG] His neighbour lent him: a pup-tent, a wooden canoe, and a slightly battered Coleman stove. (colon between verb and objects)
[RIGHT] His neighbour lent him a pup-tent, a wooden canoe, and a slightly battered Coleman stove.
[WRONG] Her three goals are: to improve her public speaking skills, to increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques. (colon between verb and subject complement)
[RIGHT] Her three goals are to improve her public speaking skills, to increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques.
[WRONG] We travelled to: London, Wales and Scotland. (colon between preposition and objects)
*[RIGHT] We travelled to London, Wales and Scotland.F. End PunctuationThe
punctuation marks that signal the end of a
sentence are the period, the question mark and the exclamation mark.
You use the
period, by far the most common of the
end punctuation marks, to terminate a sentence that makes a statement. You may also use periods with
imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or excitement attached:
Without a doubt, Lady Emily was much happier after her divorce.
Turn right at the stop sign.
Bring me a cup of coffee and a cheese danish.
When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong emotion, you may end your imperative sentences and statements with an
exclamation mark:
Look out below!
Leave this house at once!
I hate him!
Exclamation marks are, however, rare in formal writing. Use them sparingly, if at all.
You should use the
question mark at the end of a
direct question:
Who's on first?
Where is my flowered cape?
Be careful not to use a question mark at the end of an
indirect question. Indirect questions are simply statements, and therefore end with a period:
I wonder who was chosen as Harvest King in the county fair.
She asked if she could play pinball.
The teacher asked who was chewing gum.
G. Quotation MarksThe exact rules for
quotation marks vary greatly from language to language and even from country to country within the English-speaking world. In North American usage, you should place double quotation marks (") before and after directly quoted material and words of dialogue:
One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply the best film ever made about potato farming."
May replied, "This is the last cookie."
You also use quotation marks to set off certain titles, usually those of minor or short works -- essays, short stories, short poems, songs, articles in periodicals, etc. For titles of longer works and separate publications, you should use italics (or underlined, if italics are not available). Use italics for titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films, plays, long poems, long musical works, and television and radio programs.
Once when I was sick, my father read me a story called "The Happy Flower," which was later made into a movie entitled Flower Child, starring Tiny Tim.
Sometimes, you will use quotation marks to set off words specifically referred to as terms, though some publishers prefer italics:
I know you like the word "unique," but do you really have to use it ten times in one essay?
"Well" is sometimes a noun, sometimes an adverb, sometimes an adjective and sometimes a verb.
1. Quotations Marks with Other PunctuationOne question that frequently arises with quotation marks is where to place other punctuation marks in relation to them. Again, these rules vary from region to region, but North American usage is quite simple:
1.
Commas and
periods always go inside the quotation marks.
I know you are fond of the story "Children of the Corn," but is it an appropriate subject for your essay?
"At last," said the old woman, "I can say I am truly happy."
2.
Semicolons and
colons always go outside the quotation marks.
She never liked the poem "Dover Beach"; in fact, it was her least favourite piece of Victorian literature.
He clearly states his opinion in the article "Of Human Bondage": he believes that television has enslaved and diminished an entire generation.
3.
Question marks,
exclamation marks, and
dashes go inside quotation marks when they are part of the quotation, and outside when they do not.
Where is your copy of "The Raven"?
"How cold is it outside?" my mother asked.
Note that in North American usage, you should use single quotation marks (') only to set off quoted material (or a minor title) inside a quotation.
"I think she said `I will try,' not `I won't try,'" explained Sandy.
H. The ApostropheYou should use an
apostrophe to form the
possessive case of a
noun or to show that you have left out letters in a
contraction. Note that you should not generally use contractions in formal, academic writing.
The convertible's engine has finally died. (The noun "convertible's" is in the possessive case)
I haven't seen my roommate for two weeks. (The verb "haven't" is a contraction of "have not")
To form the possessive of a
plural noun ending in "s," simply place an apostrophe after the "s."
He has his three sons' futures in mind.
In many suburbs, the houses' designs are too much alike.
Possessive pronouns -- for example, "hers," "yours," and "theirs" -- do not take apostrophes. This is the case for the possessive pronoun "its" as well: when you write "it's" with an apostrophe, you are writing a contraction for "it is."
The spaceship landed hard, damaging its radar receiver. ("its" is the possessive pronoun)
It's your mother on the phone. ("it's" is the contraction of "it is")
I. The DashAs noted in the section on
commas, you can use a
dash at the beginning and end of
parenthetical information. Usually, you will use dashes when you want to emphasise the information, but you might also use them if the parenthetical information is too long or abrupt to be set off with commas.
I think you would look fine wearing either the silk blouse -- the one with the blue pattern -- or the angora sweater. (abrupt interruption)
The idea of returning to the basics in the classroom -- a notion which, incidentally, has been quietly supported for years by many respected teachers -- is finally gaining some currency with school administrators. (lengthy interruption containing internal commas)
You can use a dash to conclude a list of elements, focusing them all toward one point.
Chocolate, cream, honey and peanut butter -- all go into this fabulously rich dessert.
Dashes also mark sharp turns in thought.
We pored over exotic, mouth-watering menus from Nemo Catering, Menu du Jour, Taste Temptations, and three other reputable caterers -- and rejected them all.
IV. Pronoun ReferencePronouns usually refer to other words, called their
antecedents because they (should) come before the pronoun. A pronoun's antecedent may be either a
noun or another pronoun, but in either case, it must be clear what the antecedent is. Consider this example:
Micheline told Ruth that she would take Jerry to the barn dance.
It is not clear whether the pronoun "she" in this
sentence refers to Ruth or Micheline. Unless pronouns refer unmistakably to distinct, close, and single antecedents, the reader will never be sure who's going to the square dance with whom.
A. A pronoun should have only one possible antecedentIf there is more than one possible antecedent for a
personal pronoun in a sentence, make sure that the pronoun refers only to one of them:
[WRONG] Jerry found a gun in the trousers which he wore.
"Which he wore" could modify "trousers" or "gun."
[WRONG] Jerry called Steve twelve times while he was in Reno.
The pronoun "he" could refer either to "Jerry" or to "Steve."
B. A pronoun should not refer to an implied ideaMake sure that the pronoun refers to a specific rather than to an implicit antecedent: When you leave the antecedent implied instead of stating it explicitly, the reader has to try to guess your sentence's meaning:
[WRONG] John put a bullet in his gun and shot it.
The pronoun "it" can refer either to the noun "gun" or to the implied
object of the verb "shot".
[WRONG] If I told you had a beautiful body would you hold it against me?
The pronoun "it" can refer to the noun "body" or to the entire statement.
[WRONG] The craftspersons' union reached an agreement on Ruth's penalty, but it took time.
The pronoun "it" can refer to the noun "union" or to the implied process of decision making.
C. A pronoun should not refer to adjectives or possessive nounsYou should not use
adjectives, or nouns or pronouns in the
possessive case, as antecedents. Although they may imply a noun, reference to them will be ambiguous:
In Ruth's apology she told Jerry she'd loved him for years.
In this case, the pronoun "she" seems to refer to the
noun phrase "Ruth's apology,", though it was probably meant to refer to
possessive noun "Ruth's."
Jerry wore those blasted green knickers; it was his favourite colour.
In this example, the pronoun "it" seems to refer to the noun "knickers," though it was probably meant to refer to the adjective "green."
D. A pronoun should not refer to a titleWhen you start your paper, do not write as if the title itself were part of the body of the paper. Often, the title will appear on a separate page, and your opening will be confusing. Imagine, for example, a paper entitled "How to Sew Green Knickers": you should not begin the first
paragraph with a sentence like
This is not as easy as it looks.
The writer probably wanted the pronoun "this" to refer to the idea of sewing knickers, but since the idea is not in the body of the paper itself, the reference will not make sense.
E. Use "it," "they," and "you" carefullyIn conversation people often use expressions such as "It says in this book that ..." and "In my home town they say that ...". These constructions are useful for information conversation because they allow you to present ideas casually, without supporting evidence; for academic writing, however, these constructions are either too imprecise or too wordy:
[WRONG] In Chapter four of my autobiography it says that I was born out of wedlock.
In Chapter four, what says that the speaker was born out of wedlock?
[WRONG] In the restaurant they gave me someone else's linguini.
Who gave the speaker someone else's linguini?
It would be better to rewrite these two sentences as follow:
[RIGHT] Chapter four of my autobiography states that I was born out of wedlock.
[RIGHT] In the restaurant, the server gave me someone else's linguini.
In these revised sentences, there is no doubt about who is doing what.
The same basic rule applies to the pronoun "you." In informal conversation and in instructional writing (like HyperGrammar), English speakers often use the pronoun to mean something like "a hypothetical person" or "people in general"; academic writing, however, needs to be more precise, and you should use "you" only when you want to address the reader directly (as I am doing here). Consider this example:
[WRONG] In the fourteenth century, you had to struggle to survive.
In this case, "you" obviously does not refer to the reader, since the reader was not alive during the seventeenth century. It would be better to rewrite the sentence so that it expresses your idea more precisely; for example
[RIGHT] In the fourteenth century, people had to struggle to survive.
Or even better yet,
[RIGHT] In the fourteenth century, English peasant farmers had to struggle to survive.
F. Use "it" consistently within a sentenceThere are three common uses of the pronoun "it":
As an idiom
"It is snowing";
To postpone the subject
"It is untrue that a rhinoceros can run faster than my tights"; and
As a personal pronoun
"I wanted a rhinoceros for my birthday, but did not get it."
You may use all of these in academic writing, but to avoid awkwardness, you should not use more than one within a single sentence:
[WRONG] When it is my birthday, I hope to receive a rhinoceros, and I will walk it often.
It would be better to eliminate the first (idiomatic) "it":
On my birthday, I hope to receive a rhinoceros, and I will walk it often.
G. Use "who," "which," and "that" carefullyHistorically, writers, editors, and publishers have had difficulty establishing a clear guidelines for using the
relative pronouns "who," "which," and "that," in formal writing, but over the last fifty years or so they have come a loose standard. According to this standard, the pronoun "who" usually refers to people, but may also refer to animals that have names:
My mother, who gave me the rhino, must love me very much. My rhino, whom I call Spike, wanders at will through the house.
The pronoun "which" refers to animals and things:
The rhino, which is a much maligned and misunderstood animal, is really quite affectionate. Its horn is a matt of hair which is sort of stuck to its snout.
Finally, the pronoun "that" refers to animals and things and occasionally to persons when they are collective or anonymous:
The rhino that hid behind the television was missing for days.
Rhinos that like to swim cause both plumbing and enamelling problems for their owners.
H. Tricky Points of Pronoun UsageThis section covers some relatively tricky points which are no longer standard in spoken English, though many people still insist upon them in formal writing.
1. Pronouns in AppositionA
pronoun should also be in the
subject case when it is in
apposition to a
subject or
subject complement, and in the
object case when it is in apposition to the object of a
verb,
verbal, or
preposition:
[RIGHT] Three craftspeople -- Mary, Albert, and he -- made the accessory for Jerry.
The
phrase "Mary, Albert, and he" is in apposition to "craftspeople," the subject of the
sentence.
[RIGHT] The accessory was made by three craftspeople, Mary, Albert, and him.
The phrase "Mary, Albert, and him" is still in apposition to the
noun "craftspeople," but that noun has become the
object of the preposition "by," so the pronoun "him" is in the object case.
[RIGHT] The three craftspeople involved were Mary, Albert, and she.
The pronoun "she" is part of the subject complement, so it is in the subject case.
2. "Us" and "we" before a NounA
first-person plural pronoun used with a noun takes the
case of the noun. If the noun functions as a subject, the pronoun should be in the subject case; if the noun functions as an object, the pronoun should be in the object case:
We rowdies left the restaurant late.
The restaurant owner mumbled at all us slow eaters.
3. Using 'than' or 'as' in a ComparisonIn elliptical comparisons, where the writer has left some words out of a sentence, the case of the pronoun at the end of the sentence determines its meaning. When a sentence ends with a
subjective pronoun, the pronoun must serve as the subject of the omitted verb. When a sentence ends with an
objective pronoun, the pronoun must serve as the object of the omitted verb:
Elliptical
Ruth likes Jerry better than I.
Complete
Ruth likes Jerry better than I like Jerry.
Elliptical
Ruth likes Jerry better than me.
Complete
Ruth likes Jerry better than she likes me.
V. Using VerbsThe
verb is perhaps the most important part of the
sentence. A verb or
compound verb asserts something about the
subject of the sentence and expresses actions, events, or states of being.
In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb appears highlighted:
Dracula bites his victims on the neck.
The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.
In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.
Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.
My first teacher was Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr. Weatherbee more vividly.
In this sentence, the verb "was" (the
simple past tense of "is") identifies a particular person and the verb "remembered" describes a mental action.
A. Compound VerbsYou construct a
compound verb out of an auxiliary verb and another
verb.
In particular, you may use an
auxiliary verb (also known as a
helping verb) with the verb in order to create the many of the
tenses available in English.
In each of the following
sentences, the compound verb appears highlighted:
Karl Creelman bicycled around in world in 1899, but his diaries and his bicycle were destroyed.
The compound verb in this sentence is made up of the auxiliary "were" and the
past participle "destroyed."
The book Seema was looking for is under the sofa.
Here the compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb "was" and the
present participle "looking."
They will meet us at the newest café in the market.
In this example the compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb "will" and the verb "meet."
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder if someone will call the owner.
In this sentence the first compound verb is made up of the two auxiliary verbs ("has" and "been") and a present participle ("barking"). The second compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb "will" and the verb "call."
B. Auxiliary VerbsThe most common
auxiliary verbs are "be," "do," and "have", and you may also use these
verbs on their own. You use "Will" and "shall" to express future time.
In each of the following examples, a verb commonly used as an auxiliary verb appears as a
simple predicate:
She is the chief engineer.
The tea cups are in the china cabinet.
Garth does this kind of thing frequently.
My roommates and I do the laundry every second week.
I can't complete my assignment because he still has my notes.
They have several kinds of gelato in the display case.
Other common auxiliaries are "can," "could," "may," "might," "must," "ought," "should," "will," and "would." A verb like these is called a
modal auxiliary and expresses necessity, obligation, or possibility.
The highlighted word in each of the following
sentences is a modal auxiliary:
Zora was pleased to learn that she could take several days off.
The small freckled girl told her neighbours that she would walk their dog for an appropriate fee.
Henry told Eliza that she ought to have the hole in the bucket fixed.
The principal told the assembled students that the school board might introduce a dress code next autumn.
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for twenty minutes.
Several words may intervene between the auxiliary and the verb which goes with it, as in the following sentences:
They have not delivered the documents on time.
The treasure chest was never discovered.
The health department has recently decided that all high school students should be immunised against meningitis.
Will you walk the dog tonight?
The ballet corps was rapidly and gracefully pirouetting about the stage.
C. Transitive and Intransitive VerbsDepending on the type of object they take,
verbs may be transitive, intransitive, or
linking.
The meaning of a
transitive verb is incomplete without a
direct object, as in the following examples:
INCOMPLETE
The shelf holds.
COMPLETE
The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers.
INCOMPLETE
The committee named.
COMPLETE
The committee named a new chairperson.
INCOMPLETE
The child broke.
COMPLETE
The child broke the plate.
An
intransitive verb, on the other hand, cannot take a direct object:
This plant has thrived on the south windowsill.
The
compound verb "has thrived" is intransitive and takes no direct object in this
sentence. The
prepositional phrase "on the south windowsill" acts as an
adverb describing where the plant thrives.
The sound of the choir carried through the cathedral.
The verb "carried" is used intransitively in this sentence and takes no direct object. The prepositional phrase "through the cathedral" acts as an adverb describing where the sound carried.
The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.
The intransitive verb "arrived" takes no direct object, and the
noun phrase "four hours late" acts as an adverb describing when the train arrived.
Since the company was pleasant and the coffee both plentiful and good, we lingered in the restaurant for several hours.
The verb "lingered" is used intransitively and takes no direct object. The prepositional phrase "in the restaurant for several hours" acts as an adverb modifying "lingered".
The painting was hung on the south wall of the reception room.
The compound verb "was hung" is used intransitively and the sentence has no direct object. The prepositional phrase "on the south wall of the reception room" acts as a adverb describing where the paint hung.
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on their context in the sentence. In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the verb transitively and the second uses the same verb intransitively:
transitive
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for twenty minutes.
In this example, the verb "leave" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "this goo".
intransitive
We would like to stay longer, but we must leave.
In this example, the verb "leave" does not take a direct object.
transitive
The audience attentively watched the latest production of The Trojan Women.
In this example, the verb "watch" is used transitively and takes the noun phrase "the latest production of The Trojan Women" as a direct object.
intransitive
The cook watched while the new dishwasher surreptitiously picked up the fragments of the broken dish.
In this example, the verb "watched" is used intransitively and takes no direct object.
intransitive
The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see the rock star get into her helicopter.
Here the verb "moves" is used as an intransitive verb and takes no direct object.
transitive
Every spring, William moves all boxes and trunks from one side of the attic to the other.
In this sentence "moves" is used as a transitive verb and takes the noun phrase "all the boxes and trunk" as a direct object.
D. Linking VerbsA
linking verb connects a
subject to a
subject complement which identifies or describes the subject, as in the following
sentences:
The play is Waiting for Godot.
In this sentence, the linking verb "is" links the
noun phrase "the play" to the identifying
phrase "Waiting for Godot," which is called a subject complement.
Some of us thought that the play was very good.
In this sentence, the
verb "was" links the subject complement "very good" to subject "the play".
Others thought it became tedious after the first fifteen minutes.
In this sentence, the linking verb "became" links the subject "it" to the subject complement "tedious." The phrase "after the first fifteen minutes" functions as a
adverb modifying the clause "it became tedious".
The cast appears disorganised and confused; perhaps Beckett intended this.
Here "appears" is functioning as a linking verb that connects the subject "the cast" to its subject complement "disorganised and confused".
The play seems absurd to me.
The subject "the play" is joined to its subject complement "absurd" by the linking verb "seems".
Linking verbs are either verbs of sensation ("feel," "look," "smell," "sound," "taste") or verbs of existence ("act," "appear," "be," "become," "continue," "grow," "prove," "remain," "seem," "sit," "strand," "turn").
Many linking verbs (with the significant exception of "be") can also be used as
transitive or
intransitive verbs. In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the highlighted verb as a linking verb and the second uses the same verb as either a
transitive or an
intransitive verb:
Linking
Griffin insists that the water in Winnipeg tastes terrible.
In this sentence, the
adjective "terrible" is a subject complement that describes a quality of the water.
Transitive
I tasted the soup before adding more salt.
Here the noun phrase "the soup" identifies what "I tasted." "The soup" is the
direct object of the verb "tasted."
Linking
My neighbour's singing voice sounds very squeaky despite several hours of daily practice.
In this example, the phrase "very squeaky" is a subject complement that describes or identities the nature of the "singing voice."
Transitive
Upon the approach of the enemy troops, the gate-keeper sounded his horn.
Here the verb "sounded" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "his horn."
Linking
Cynthia feels queasy whenever she listens to banjo music.
In this sentence, the adjective "queasy" is a subject complement that describes Cynthia.
Transitive
The customer carefully feels the fabric of the coat.
Here the noun phrase "the fabric of the coat" is the direct object of the verb "feels" and identifies what the customer feels.
E. VerbalsA
verbal is a
noun or
adjective formed from a
verb. Writers sometimes make mistakes by using a verbal in place of a verb, and in very formal writing, by confusing different types of verbals. This section covers three different verbals: the participle (which acts as an adjective), the gerund (which acts as a noun), and the
infinitive (which also acts as a noun).
The fundamental difference between verbals and other nouns and adjectives is that verbals can take their own
objects, even though they are no longer verbs:
Gerund
Building a house is complicated.
In this example, the
noun phrase "a house" is the direct object of the verbal "building", even though "building" is a noun rather than a verb.
1. The ParticipleA
participle is an adjective formed from a verb. To make a
present participle, you add "-ing" to the verb, sometimes
doubling the final consonant:
"think" becomes "thinking"
"fall" becomes "falling"
"run" becomes "running"
The second type of participle, the
past participle, is a little more complicated, since not all verbs form the
past tense regularly. The following are all past participles:
the sunken ship
a ruined city
a misspelled word
Note that only
transitive verbs can use their past participles as adjectives, and that unlike other verbals, past participles do not take objects (unless they are part of a
compound verb).
2. The GerundA gerund is a noun formed from a verb. To make a gerund, you add "-ing" to the verb, just as with a present participle. The fundamental difference is that a gerund is a noun, while a participle is an adjective:
gerund
I enjoy running. ("Running" is a noun acting as the
direct object of the verb "enjoy.")
participle
Stay away from running water. ("Running" is an adjective modifying the noun "water".)
3. Using VerbalsThere are two common problems that come up when writers use verbals. The first is that since verbals look like verbs, they sometimes cause students to write fragmentary
sentences:
[WRONG] Oh, to find true love!
[WRONG] Jimmy, swimming the most important race of his life.
The second problem is a very fine point, which most editors and some teachers no longer enforce. Although they look the same, gerunds and present participles are different
parts of speech, and need to be treated differently. For example, consider the following two sentences:
I admire the woman finishing the report.
I admire the woman's finishing the report.
In the first example, "finishing" is a participle modifying the noun "woman": in other words, the writer admires the woman, not what she is doing; in the second example, "finishing" is a participle, modified by the
possessive noun "woman's": in other words, the writer admires not the woman herself but the fact that she is finishing the report.
4. Forming and Using Verb TensesEnglish speakers form many verb
tenses by combining one of principal parts of the
verb with one or more
auxiliary verbs.
In order to form verb tenses you need a good grasp of the auxiliaries and the
principal parts of the verb. There are four principal parts: the basic form, the
present participle, the past form, and the
past participle.
The
basic form (or
root of the verb is the form listed in the dictionary and is usually identical to the
first person singular form of the
simple present tense (except in the case of the verb "to be"):
walk
paint
think
grow
sing
The
infinitive form of the verb is a
compound verb made up of the the
preposition "to" and the basic form of the verb:
to walk
to paint
to think
to grow
to sing
To form the present participle, add "-ing" to the basic form of the verb:
walking
painting
thinking
growing
singing
Note that you cannot use the present participle as a
predicate unless you use an auxiliary verb with it -- the word group "I walking to the store" is an incomplete and ungrammatical
sentence, while word group "I am walking to the store" is a complete sentence. You will often use the present participle as a
modifier.
The
past form of verbs is a little trickier. If the verb is
regular (or
weak, you can create the past form by adding "-ed", "-d", or "-t" to the present form. When a basic form ends in "-y", you changed the "-y" to "-i-"; in many cases you should also double terminal consonants before adding "-ed" (see the section on
Spelling words with Double Consonants).
walked
painted
thought
grew
sang
The past participle of regular verbs is usually identical to the past form, while the past participle of irregular verbs is often different:
walked
painted
thought
grown
sung
5. Irregular VerbsIrregular verbs form the past participle and the past form without "-(e)d" or "-t", and frequently their past form and past participle are different. For example, the past form of the verb "break" is "broke" and the past participle is "broken".
This list contains the most common verbs that form their
past tenses irregularly:
arise
arose, arise
awake
awoke or awaked, awaked or awoken
awaken
awakened, awakened
bear (to carry)
bore, borne
bear (to give birth)
bore
beat
beat, beaten or beat
be
was, been
become
became, become
begin
began, begun
bet
bet, bet
bid
bid, bid (to, offer)
bid (to order, invite)
bade, bidden
bind
bound, bound
bite
bit, bitten
bleed
bled, bled
blow
blew, blown
break
broke, broken
breed
bred, bred
bring
brought, brought
burst
burst, burst
buy
bought, bought
cast
cast, cast
catch
caught, caught
choose
chose, chosen
cling
clung, clung
come
came, come
creep
crept, crept
cut
cut, cut
deal
dealt, dealt
dig
dug, dug
dive
dived or dove, dived
do
did, done
draw
drew, drawn
dream
dreamed or dreamt, dreamed or dreamt
drink
drank, drunk
drive
drove, driven
eat
ate, eaten
fall
fell, fallen
feed
fed, fed
feel
felt, felt
fight
fought, fought
find
found, found
flee
fled, fled
fly
flew, flown
forbid
forbade, forbidden
forget
forgot, forgotten
forgive
forgave, forgiven
forsake
forsook, forsaken
freeze
froze, frozen
get
got, got or gotten
give
gave, given
go
went, gone
grind
ground, ground
grow
grew, grown
hang (to suspend)
hung, hung
hang (to execute)
hanged, hanged
have
had, had
hear
heard, heard
hide
hid, hidden
hit
hit, hit
hold
held, held
hurt
hurt, hurt
keep
kept, kept
kneel
knelt or kneeled, knelt or kneeled
knit
knitted or knit, knitted or knit
know
knew, known
lay
laid, laid
lead
led, led
leap
leaped or leapt, leaped or leapt
leave
left, left
lend
lent, lent
let
let, let
lie
lay, lain
light
lighted or lit, lighted or lit
lose
lost, lost
make
made, made
mean
meant, meant
meet
met, met
mistake
mistook, mistaken
overcome
overcame, overcome
pay
paid, paid
prove
proved, proved or proven
put
put, put
quit
quit, quit
read
read, read
ride
rode, ridden
ring
rang, rung
rise
rose, risen
run
ran, run
say
said, said
see
saw, seen
seek
sought, sought
sell
sold, sold
send
sent, sent
set
set, set
shake
shook, shaken
shed
shed, shed
shoot
shot, shot
shrink
shrank or shrunk, shrunk
shut
shut, shut
sing
sang, sung
sink
sank, sunk
sit
sat, sat
slay
slew, slain
sleep
slept, slept
slide
slid, slide
sling
slung, slung
slink
slunk, slunk
speak
spoke, spoken
speed
sped or speeded, sped or speeded
spend
spent, spent
spin
spun, spun
spit
spit or spat, spit or spat
split
split, split
spread
spread, spread
spring
sprang or sprung, sprung
stand
stood, stood
steal
stole, stolen
stick
stuck, stuck
stink
stank or stunk, stunk
strew
strewed, strewn
stride
strode, stridden
strike
struck, struck
string
strung, strung
strive
stove or strived, striven or strived
swear
swore, sworn
sweep
swept, swept
swell
swelled, swelled or swollen
swim
swam, swum
swing
swung, swung
take
took, taken
teach
taught, taught
tear
tore, torn
tell
told, told
think
thought, though
thrive
throve or thrived, throve or thriven
throw
threw, thrown
thrust
thrust, thrust
wake
woke or waked, waked or woken
weep
wept, wept
win
won, won
wind
wound, wound
wring
wring, wrung
write
wrote, written
6. Frequently-Confused VerbsWriters often confuse the
verb pairs "lie" and "lay" and "sit" and "set".
a) "Lie" and "Lay"The verb "lie" is an
intransitive verb which means "to recline" or "to be situated". The
present participle of "lie" is "lying," the
past form is "lay" and the
past participle is "lain":
The cup is lying on the floor.
The cat lay in the sun all morning.
The newspapers had lain on the verandah for two weeks before anyone noticed that Mr. Gilfillian had disappeared.
In each of these examples, the intransitive verb "lie" is used (in conjunction with an
adverbial phrase) to describe the location of the
subject.
The verb "lay" is a
transitive verb which means "to place" or "to put". The present participle of "lay" is "laying", and both the past form and the past participle is "laid":
I was laying the cups and saucers on the table when I dropped one.
Jenkins laid the suspicious parcel on the commissioner's desk.
The supervisor had laid a cup of scalding coffee on the counter only moments before the bulldozer rammed into the construction office.
In each of these
sentences, the transitive verb "lay" is used to describe the fact that someone had placed something somewhere.
b) Sit and SetThe verbs "sit" and "set" are also frequently confused. The intransitive verb "sit" means "to rest" or "to occupy a seat". The present participle is "sitting", and both the past part and the past participle are "sat".
Charlie will be surprised when he learns that he is sitting on a freshly painted bench.
We sat in the corridor outside the dean's office all afternoon.
The student delegate is persistent; they have sat in the excruciatingly uncomfortable chairs outside the dean's office for several hours.
In each of these sentences, the verb "sit" is used in conjunction with a adverbial phrase to describe the position of the subject.
The transitive verb "set" is means "to place," "to put," or "to lay". The present participle of "set" is "setting", and both the past form and the past participle are "set":
The clockmaker was setting his tools on the bench when the hooligans came into his shop.
Germaine set plates and soup bowls on the table.
Once we had set the clock ahead an hour, we went to bed.
*In each of these sentence, the verb "set" is used to describe the placing of an object in a specific place.F. Using Verb TensesA
verb indicates the time of an action, event or condition by changing its form. Through the use of a
sequence of tenses in a
sentence or in a paragraph, it is possible to indicate the complex temporal relationship of actions, events, and conditions
There are many ways of categorising the twelve possible verb tenses. The verb tenses may be categorised according to the time frame: past tenses, present tenses, and future tenses.
1. Verb Tense: TimeThe four
past tenses are
1. the simple past ("I went")
2. the past progressive ("I was going")
3. the past perfect ("I had gone")
4. the past perfect progressive ("I had been going")
The four
present tenses are
1. the simple present ("I go")
2. the present progressive ("I am going")
3. the present perfect ("I have gone")
4. the present perfect progressive ("I have been going")
Note that the present perfect and present perfect progressive are a present not past tenses -- that idea is that the speaker is currently in the state of having gone or having been going.
The four
future tenses are
1. the simple future ("I will go")
2. the future progressive ("I will be going")
3. the future perfect ("I will have gone")
4. the future perfect progressive ("I will have been going")
2. Verb Tense: AspectVerb tenses may also be categorised according to aspect. Aspect refers to the nature of the action described by the verb. There are three aspects: indefinite (or simple), complete (or perfect), continuing (or progressive).
The three
indefinite tenses, or
simple tenses, describe an action but do not state whether the action is finished:
· the simple past ("I went")
· the simple present ("I go")
· the simple future ("I will go")
A verb in the
indefinite aspect is used when the beginning or ending of an action, an event, or condition is unknown or unimportant to the meaning of the sentence. The indefinite aspect is also used to used to indicate an habitual or repeated action, event, or condition.
The three
complete tenses, or
perfect tenses, describe a finished action:
· the past perfect ("I had gone")
· the present perfect ("I have gone")
· the future perfect ("I will have gone")
A verb in the
complete aspect indicates that the end of the action, event, or condition is known and the is used to emphasise the fact that the action is complete. The action may, however, be completed in the present, in the past or in the future.
The three
incomplete tenses, or
progressive tenses, describe an unfinished action:
· the past progressive ("I was going")
· the present progressive ("I am going")
· the future progressive ("I will be going")
A verb in the
continuing aspect indicates that the action, event, or condition is ongoing in the present, the past or the future.
It is also possible to combine the complete tenses and the incomplete tenses, to describe an action which was in progress and then finished:
· the past perfect progressive ("I had been going")
· the present perfect progressive ("I have been going")
· the future perfect progressive ("I will have been going")
3. The Simple Present TenseThe
simple present is used to describe an action, an event, or condition that is occurring in the present, at the moment of speaking or writing. The simple present is used when the precise beginning or ending of a present action, event, or condition is unknown or is unimportant to the meaning of the sentence.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the simple present tense and each sentence describes an action taking place in the present:
Deborah waits patiently while Bridget books the tickets.
The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers.
The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see the rock star get into her helicopter.
The Stephens sisters are both very talented; Virginia writes and Vanessa paints.
Ross annoys Walter by turning pages too quickly.
The simple present is used to express general truths such as scientific fact, as in the following sentences:
Rectangles have four sides.
Canada Day takes place on July 1, the anniversary of the signing of the British North America Act.
The moon circles the earth once every 28 days.
Calcium is important to the formation of strong bones.
Menarche and menopause mark the beginning and the ending of a woman's reproductive history.
The simple present is used to indicate a habitual action, event, or condition, as in the following sentences:
Leonard goes to The Jumping Horse Tavern every Thursday evening.
My grandmother sends me new mittens each spring.
In fairy tales, things happen in threes.
We never finish jigsaw puzzles because the cat always eats some of the pieces.
Jesse polishes the menorah on Wednesdays.
The simple present is also used when writing about works of art, as in the following sentences.
Lolly Willowes is the protagonist of the novel Townsend published in 1926.
One of Artemisia Gentleschi's best known paintings represents Judith's beheading of Holofernes.
The Lady of Shallot weaves a tapestry while watching the passers-by in her mirror.
Lear rages against the silence of Cordelia and only belatedly realizes that she, not her more vocal sisters, loves him.
The play ends with an epilogue spoken by the fool.
The simple present can also be used to refer to a future event when used in conjunction with an
adverb or
adverbial phrase, as in the following sentences.
The doors open in 10 minutes.
The premier arrives on Tuesday.
Classes end next week.
The publisher distributes the galley proofs next Wednesday.
The lunar eclipses begins in exactly 43 minutes.
4. The Present ProgressiveWhile the simple present and the present progressive are sometimes used interchangeably, the
present progressive emphasises the continuing nature of an act, event, or condition.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the present progressive tense. In each sentence the on-going nature of the action is emphasised by the use of the present progressive rather than the simple present.
Nora is looking for the first paperback editions of all of Raymond Chandler's books.
Deirdre is dusting all the shelves on the second floor of the shop.
The union members are pacing up and down in front of the factory.
KPLA is broadcasting the hits of the 70s this evening.
The presses are printing the first edition of tomorrow's paper.
The present progressive is occasionally used to refer to a future event when used in conjunction with an adverb or adverbial phrase, as in the following sentences.
The doors are opening in 10 minutes.
The premier is arriving on Tuesday.
Classes are ending next week.
The publisher is distributing the galley proofs next Wednesday.
5. The Present Perfect TenseThe
present perfect tense is used to describe action that began in the past and continues into the present or has just been completed at the moment of utterance. The present perfect is often used to suggest that a past action still has an effect upon something happening in the present.
Each of the highlighted
compound verbs in the following sentences is in the present perfect tense.
They have not delivered the documents we need.
This sentence suggest that the documents were not delivered in the past and that they are still undelivered.
The health department has decided that all high school students should be immunised against meningitis.
The writer of this sentence uses the present perfect in order to suggest that the decision made in the past is still of importance in the present.
The government has cut university budgets; consequently, the dean has increased the size of most classes.
Here both actions took place sometime in the past and continue to influence the present.
The heat wave has lasted three weeks.
In this sentence, the writer uses the present perfect to indicate that a condition (the heat wave) began in past and continues to affect the present.
Donna has dreamt about frogs sitting in trees every night this week.
Here the action of dreaming has begun in the past and continues into the present.
6. The Present Perfect Progressive TenseLike the present perfect, the
present perfect progressive is used to describe an action, event, or condition that has begun in the past and continues into the present. The present perfect progressive, however, is used to stress the on-going nature of that action, condition, or event.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the present perfect progressive tense and each sentence suggests that the action began in the past and is continuing into the present.
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder if someone will call the owner.
I have been relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for the gifts I buy for my large family.
They have been publishing this comic book for ten years.
We have been seeing geese flying south all afternoon.
Even though the coroner has been carefully examining the corpse discovered in Sutherland's Gully since early this morning, we still do not know the cause of death.
7. The Simple Past TenseThe
simple past is used to describe an action, an event, or condition that occurred in the past, sometime before the moment of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the simple past tense and each sentence describes an action taking place at some point in past.
A flea jumped from the dog to the cat.
Phoebe gripped the hammer tightly and nailed the boards together.
The gem-stones sparkled in a velvet lined display case.
Artemisia Gentilsechi probably died in 1652.
The storyteller began every story by saying "A long time ago when the earth was green."
8. The Past Progressive TenseThe
past progressive tense is used to described actions ongoing in the past. These actions often take place within a specific time frame. While actions referred to in the present progressive have some connection to the present, actions referred in the past progressive have no immediate or obvious connection to the present. The on-going actions took place and were completed at some point well before the time of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the past progressive tense.
The cat was walking along the tree branch.
This sentence describes an action that took place over a period of continuous time in the past. The cat's actions have no immediate relationship to anything occurring now in the present.
Lena was telling a story about the exploits of a red cow when a tree branch broke the parlour window.
Here the action "was telling" took place in the past and continued for some time in the past.
When the recess bell rang, Jesse was writing a long division problem on the blackboard.
This sentence describes actions ("ran" and "was writing") that took place sometime in the past, and emphasises the continuing nature of one of the actions ("was writing").
The archivists were eagerly waiting for the delivery of the former prime minister's private papers.
Here the ongoing action of "waiting" occurred at some time unconnected to the present.
Between 1942 and 1944 the Frank and Van Damm families were hiding in a Amsterdam office building.
In this sentence, the action of hiding took place over an extended period of time and the continuing nature of the hiding is emphasised.
9. The Past Perfect TenseThe
past perfect tense is used to refer to actions that took place and were completed in the past. The past perfect is often used to emphasise that one action, event or condition ended before another past action, event, or condition began.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the past perfect.
Miriam arrived at 5:00 p.m. but Mr. Whitaker had closed the store.
All the events in this sentence took place in the past, but the act of closing the store takes place before Miriam arrives at the store.
After we located the restaurant that Christian had raved about, we ate supper there every Friday.
Here the praise ("had raved") precedes the finding ("located") of the restaurant. Both actions took place sometime before the moment of speaking or writing.
The elephant had eaten all the hay so we fed it oats for a week.
In this sentence, both actions take place in the past, but the eating of the hay ("had eaten") preceded the eating of the oats ("fed").
The heat wave had lasted three weeks.
While the sentence "The heat wave has lasted three weeks" suggests that a condition began in the past and continues into the present, this sentence describes an action that began and ended sometime in the past ("had lasted"). By using the past perfect the writer indicates that the heat wave has no connection to any events occurring in the present.
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
Here the learning took place and was completed at a specific time in the past. By using the past perfect rather than the simple past ("learned"), the writer emphasises that the learning preceded the feeling of independence.
10. The Past Perfect Progressive TenseThe
past perfect progressive is used to indicate that a continuing action in the past began before another past action began or interrupted the first action.
Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following sentences is in the past perfect progressive tense.
The toddlers had been running around the school yard for ten minutes before the teachers shooed them back inside.
Here the action of the toddlers ("had been running") is ongoing in the past and precedes the actions of the teachers ("shooed") which also takes place in the past.
We had been talking about repainting the front room for three years and last night we finally bought the paint.
In this example, the ongoing action of "talking" precedes another past action ("bought").
A construction crew had been digging one pit after another in the middle of my street for three days before they found the water main.
Here, the action of digging ("had been digging") took place in the past and occurred over a period of time. The digging was followed by the action of finding ("found").
Madeleine had been reading mystery novels for several years before she discovered the works of Agatha Christie.
In this sentence the act of discovery ("discovered") occurred in the past but after the ongoing and repeated action of reading ("had been reading").
The chef's assistant had been chopping vegetables for several minutes before he realized that he had minced his apron strings.
This sentence is a bit more complex in that it contains three different past verb tenses. The sequence of tenses conveys a complex set of information. The past perfect progressive ("had been chopping") is used to emphasise the ongoing nature of the past act of chopping. While a second past perfect progressive ("had been mincing") could be used, the past perfect ("had minced") is used to suggest that act of mincing was completed. The simple past ("realized") is used to describe the action closest to the present, an action that followed both the chopping and the mincing.
11. The Simple Future TenseThe
simple future is used to refer to actions that will take place after the act of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the simple future tense.
They will meet us at the newest café in the market.
Will you walk the dog tonight?
At the feast, we will eat heartily.
Bobbie will call you tomorrow with details about the agenda.
The Smiths say that they will not move their chicken coop.
12. The Future Progressive TenseThe
future progressive tense is used to describe actions ongoing in the future. The future progressive is used to refer to continuing action that will occur in the future.
Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following sentences is in the future progressive tense.
The glee club will be performing at the celebration of the town's centenary.
Ian will be working on the computer system for the next two weeks.
The selection committee will be meeting every Wednesday morning.
We will be writing an exam every afternoon next week.
They will be ringing the bells for Hypatia next month.
13. The Future Perfect TenseThe
future perfect is used to refer to an action that will be completed sometime in the future before another action takes place.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the future perfect tense.
The surgeon will have operated on 6 patients before she attends a luncheon meeting.
In this sentence, the act of operating ("will have operated") takes place in the future sometime before the act of attending ("attends").
The plumber and his assistant will have soldered all the new joins in pipes before they leave for the next job.
Here, the plumbers' act of soldering ("will have soldered") will precede the act of leaving ("leave").
By the time you get back from the corner store, we will have finished writing the thank you letters.
In this sentence, the act of returning from the store ("get back") takes place after the act of writing ("will have written").
If this year is like last year, I will have finished my holiday shopping long before my brother starts his.
In this example, the act of finishing ("will have finished") occurs well before the act of starting ("starts").
They will have written their first exam by the time we get out of bed.
Here, the act of getting out of bed occurs sometime after the writing of the exam.
14. The Future Perfect Progressive TenseThe
future perfect progressive tense is used to indicate a continuing action that will be completed at some specified time in the future. This tense is rarely used.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the future perfect progressive tense.
I will have been studying Greek for three years by the end of this term.
In this sentence, the future perfect progressive is used to indicate the ongoing nature of the future act of the studying. The act of studying ("will have been studying") will occur before the upcoming end of term.
By the time the meeting is over, the committee will have been arguing about which candidate to interview for three hours.
Similarly in this sentence, the ongoing nature of a future act ("will have been arguing") is emphasised by the use of the future perfect progressive. The act of sustained arguing will take place before the meeting is over.
When he returns, the wine will have been fermenting for three months.
Here the ongoing action of fermentation will precede ("will have been fermenting") the act of returning.
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